There is one way to denote the antiparticle is to add bar (or shifty) on the particle code. For example, proton and antiproton are writing and p, p, respectively. The same rule applies if you're writing a particle by its constituent elements. Valbrooton consists of u u d quark, so Valbrooton counter must be composed of u u d quark counter. There are known to last a distinction molecules by electric ship them. Thus, the icon of the electron and positron b e- - and + e + in parallel.
Origin and asymmetry
Almost everything is aware of the ground seems to be a component of the article rather than antimatter. Many scientists believe that increasing the article about antimatter (known as baryon asymmetry) are the result of a defect in the production of particles of matter and antimatter in the early universe, in a process called synthesis baryon. The amount of material that can be observed at the present time in this universe requires an imbalance in the early universe under a single particle of Article billion in exchange for a pair of particles of matter and antimatter. [1]
Antimatter is created everywhere in the universe where high-energy particles collide. High-energy cosmic rays that affect the Earth's atmosphere (or any other material in the solar system) produces small amounts of antimatter resulting from the flow of particles, which perish immediately by friction with nearby article. Similarly, it may be produced in regions like the center of the Milky Way and other galaxies, where very active celestial events occur (mainly the interaction between the plasma flows with interstellar media). And the existence of antimatter resulting discoverable through gamma rays produced when positrons annihilate with Article nearby. And it indicates the frequency and wavelength of gamma rays that carries all 511 kilo-electron volts of energy (ie the rest of the mass of the electron or positron multiplied by c2 2).
The recent remarks made by the European Space Agency to gamma rays (International Laboratory Astrophysics gamma rays) satellite may explain the origin of a giant cloud of antimatter surrounding the galactic center. Observations show that the cloud is symmetrical pattern and match X-ray binaries, binary star systems containing black holes or neutron stars, most of them on one side of the galactic center. While this mechanism is not fully understood, it is likely to involve the production of pairs of electron and positron, and ordinary matter Otnale get tremendous energy falling into the remnants of stars. [2] [3]
Antimatter may exist in large quantities in a relatively distant galaxies due to cosmic inflation in the primitive time of the universe. NASA is trying to determine whether this is true search for X-rays and gamma rays events indicate that the yard in a collision Great blocs
Industrial Production
Also produces anti molecules in any environment with a temperature high enough (ie, greater than the energy production of a pair threshold) of the particles. During the synthesis baryon, when the universe was extremely hot and dense, the matter and antimatter produced and constantly perish. The presence of the rest of the article, and the absence of the remnants of the anti undiscovered material, [5] also called baryon asymmetry, due to the disruption of the country on Article symmetry and antimatter. The mechanism is still accurate for this imbalance during synthesis baryon a mystery.
Positrons are also produced by radioactive beta + </ sup> decay, but this mechanism can be considered a "natural" and "artificial".
Antihydrogen
In 1995 Sirin announced that it had successfully produced nine atoms of antihydrogen through the implementation of the sub-regional office / Fermilab concept during the PS210 experiment. The experiment was performed using the anti-proton ring with a little power, and was led by Walter Oalert and Mario Macri. Fermilab confirmed the results of CERN through the production of nearly 100 atoms of antihydrogen in their facilities.
Alhedrugim anti-atoms created during PS210, and subsequent experiments (at both CERN and Fermilab) were very active ("hot") was not well suited for the study. To work around this obstacle, and a better understanding of hydrogen counter, has been formed for them to cooperate in the late nineties - Athens and ATRAP. In 2005, Athens replaced and some of the former members (with others) formed Alpha cooperation, which is also located at CERN. The main objective of such organizations is the production of hydrogen Anti less active ("cold"), more suitable for the study.
In 1999 CERN activated the Antiproton Decelerator, a device capable of slowing antiprotons from 3.5 eV to 5.3 million electron volts, still "hot" for the production of study - effective antihydrogen, but a huge leap forward.
Athens project announced in late 2002 that he had created the first anti Hedrgen "cool" in the world. And anti-protons used in the experiment was cool enough Ptbatahm (using the Antiproton Decelerator), passing them through a thin layer of paper, and finally grab them into the trap of writing. And also subject to random antiproton cooling in several stages during the operation.
The cooling antiprotons team to Athens in an effective process, but did not succeed greatly. About 25 million antiprotons leave slowdown antiprotons; nearly 10 thousand to make it into the trap of writing.
In early 2004, researchers in Athens issued statements about a new way antihydrogen a low energy to create. The technique involves slowing antiprotons using slow antiprotons, and injected into the trap of writing (writing specifically, Malmberg trap [citation needed] once trapped in the antiprotons are mixed with electrons that have been cooled to the energy potential of much less than the antiproton; resulting Coulomb collisions cooling antiprotons Although the warming electrons until particles reach a balance of nearly 4 k.
While the antiprotons are being cooled in the first trap, a small cloud of positron plasma is injected into the second trap (the mixing trap). An echo into the trap of confusion between the areas of custody and can control the degree of positron plasma temperature, but this procedure is most effective when the plasma is in thermal equilibrium with the environment in the trap. And positron plasma cloud is generated in the complex positron prior to injection; positron source usually radioactive sodium.
Once enough antiprotons for cooling, and antiprotons - the electron is transferred into the trap of confusing mixture (containing the positron). And thus electrons are removed through a series of rapid pulses into the trap of mixing in an electric field. When you reach the antiproton positron plasma as well as Coulomb collisions occur, resulting in a further cooling of the antiprotons. When positrons and antiprotons approach thermal equilibrium antihydrogen atoms begin to take shape. Being neutral antihydrogen atoms are not affected by the trap and can leave the confinement fields.
Using this method, researchers Athens is expected that they will be able to create up to 100 antihydrogen atoms Executive per second.
Athens and ATRAP are now seeking to further cool the antihydrogen atoms by subjecting them to the field is homogeneous. While antihydrogen atoms are electrically neutral, spin produces magnetic moment. These magnetic moments vary depending on the direction of rotation of the atom, and can escape from heterogeneous fields regardless of electrical charge.
The biggest limiting factor in the production of antimatter is the availability of antiprotons. Data newly released by CERN states that when fully operational facilities capable of producing 10 7 antiprotons per second. [Citation needed] Assuming that the optimal conversion of antiprotons to antihydrogen, it would take two billion years to produce 1 gram or 1 mole of antihydrogen (approximately 6.02 × 10 23 atoms of antihydrogen). Last limiting factor of antimatter production is storage. As mentioned above there is no known to store antihydrogen effective way. Project Athena has been able to maintain the antihydrogen atoms from annihilation for tens of seconds-enough time to study for a brief period in their behavior.
Hydrogen atoms are the simplest things that can be considered a "matter" rather than molecules only.
At one time, and trapping of antiprotons antihydrogen was reported [6] and cooling is achieved; [7] There are patents on the method for the production of antihydrogen. [8]
Helium counter
A small number of isotope helium nuclei counter, \ scriptstyle {\ mathrm {^ 3 \ overline {He}}} created in the collision experiments.
Tun anti antihydrogen benefit [6] and cooling is achieved; [7] There are patents on the method for the production of antihydrogen. [8]
Anti helium [edit]
A small number of isotope helium nuclei counter, \ scriptstyle {\ mathrm {^ 3 \ overline {He}}} created in the collision experiments. [9]
Positron
Crystal Clear app kdict.png detailed article: positron
Positron been reported [10] in November 2008 that it has been created by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in greater numbers than any previous artificial process. And laser led the ionized electrons through a radius of millimeter gold target nuclei, which caused the incoming electrons to emit quanta of energy, which decayed in both matter and antimatter. Positrons were detected at a higher rate and greater intensity than ever detected in the laboratory.
Past experience has provided less of positrons using a laser beam, and the goals of thin paper, but the new simulation showed that a very short and intense laser millimeter thick gold are much more effective source. [11]
Storage
You can not store antimatter in a bowl made of ordinary matter because antimatter interact with any material affect them, and exterminate itself and the container. Antimatter of charged particles can be contained through a combination of an electric field and a magnetic field in a device known trap writing Penning trap is made up. This device can not be with it, contain antimatter, which is made up of charged particles, which are used in atomic traps. In particular, you may like the trap of using the moment dipole (electric or magnetic) of trapped particles; in high vacuum, and the matter or particles of antimatter (suspension) with can be trapped and cooled a bit outside the resonant laser radiation (see, for example, magneto-optical trap magnetic trap). Small molecules can also be suspended only by intense beams of light in optical tweezers.
Cost
Antimatter more substances are considered expensive to exist, at an estimated cost of $ 25 billion per gram of positron [12], and $ 62.5 trillion per gram of antihydrogen. [13] This is because production is difficult (only be produced few protons counter reactions in particle accelerator), and because there is an increase in demand for other uses of particle accelerators. According to CERN, it may cost a few hundred million Swiss francs (/ 0 for the production of about 1 billionth of a gram) amount used so far for particle / antiparticle collisions). {1 /}
Several studies of the Institute for Advanced Concepts NASA explores whether it may be possible to use magnetic scoops to collect the antimatter that make up naturally in the belt Van Allen of the Earth, and then, belts of gaseous planets huge, like Jupiter, and hopes to lower cost per gram. [14 ]
Uses
Medical Uses
Antimatter reactions to practical applications in medical imaging, such as positron emission tomography. In the decomposition of the positive beta, a loss Vaidhanoadh positive for shipment by positron emission (at the same event, a proton becomes a neutron, and also Newtrinoaoagaf). And made radionuclides with surplus positive charge easily on a large scale in the cyclotron for medical use.
Fuel
Antimatter collisions lead to the emission of a photon, turning static full mass of the particles into kinetic energy. And energy per unit mass (9 × 10 16 J / kg) is about 10 times the value of the exponential of chemical energy (compared with TNT in 4.2 × 10 6 J / kg, and the formation of water on the 1.56 × 10 7 J / kg) , about 4 orders of the larger size of nuclear energy that can be liberated today using nuclear fission (about 40 million electron volts per 238 </ sup> U transmuted to the nucleus of lead, or 1.5 × 10 13 J / kg), and about 2 orders of size is larger than the best possible merger (about 6.3 × 10 14 J / kg for Proton Proton series). The reaction of 1 kg of antimatter for 1 kg of material will produce 1.8 × 10 17 J (180 Balbatajul) Power (by mass energy tie formula E = MC ²), or the equivalent of crude of 43 mega tons of TNT. By way of comparison, the bomb Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear was blown up, was of the crop estimated 50 megatons, which requires the use of hundreds of kilograms of fissile material (uranium / plutonium).
You can not use all hee energy by any payment technology and realistic, because up to 50% of the energy produced in the interactions between nucleons and Alnuklionat anti holds Alenetrino away in these applications, so for all intents and purposes, can be considered lost. [15]
Ideas antimatter rockets, missiles such as the red spectrum, suggests the use of antimatter as fuel for travel between the planets or possibly interstellar travel. Since the energy density of antimatter is much higher than conventional fuels, and the trend to the weight of the equation for this craft will be very different from the traditional spacecraft.
Scarcity of antimatter means that it is not readily available to be used as fuel, although it can be used in antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse payment required for space applications. Generate antiproton and one is very difficult and requires particle accelerators, and enormous amounts of energy millions of times more than is released after it is annihilated with the matter due to the shortcomings in the process unusual. Known methods for the production of energy from antimatter also produces an equal amount of natural material, so the theoretical limit is that half of the energy input is converted to antimatter. Counterweight to this, when antimatter spend on an ordinary article, energy equal to twice the mass of antimatter, until the liberalization of the energy storage in the form of antimatter can (theoretically) be 100% effective.
For more regular applications (ground), but (like a normal transport, and use in portable generators, and operation of the cities, ...), artificially antimatter is not suitable, energy carrier in spite of high energy density, because the process of creating involves antimatter a large amount of waste and is extremely inefficient energy. According to CERN, can not only part one of the ten billion dollars (10-10) of energy, which is investing in the production of antimatter particles can be recovered at a later time. [16]
Antimatter production is currently very limited, but has been growing at a rate nearly engineering since the first discovery of the antiproton in 1955 by Chamberlain will be. [Citation needed] The current production of antimatter rate is between 1 and 10 nanograms per year, and this is expected to rise to between 3 and 30 nanograms per year by 2015 or 2020 with the ultra-new facilities linear accelerator at CERN and Fermilab connection. Some researchers claim that with current technology, it is possible to get the antimatter to $ 25 million per gram by optimizing the parameters of the collision and collection (given the current electricity generation costs). Antimatter production costs, and mass production, and are almost tied in writing with electricity costs, and even economic purely Antimatter applications Payment is unlikely to come online without the emergence of technologies such as deuterium - tritium fusion power (assuming that such a fact would that the energy source proves to be cheap). Many experts, however, dispute these allegations as being far too optimistic by many orders of magnitude. They point out that in 2004, annual production and antiprotons at CERN was several picograms at a cost of $ 20 million. This means that produces 1 gram of antimatter, CERN would need to spend $ 100 quadrillion and operation of antimatter factory for 100 billion years. Storage is another problem, as they are negatively charged antiproton and repel against each other, so can not be concentrated in a small size. Plasma oscillation in a cloud of antiprotons charge can cause instability which antiprotons expelled from the storage trap. For these reasons, so far only a few million antiprotons have been stored at the same time in the magnetic trap, which is equivalent to much less than femtogram. Antihydrogen atoms or neutral molecules in principle, so they do not suffer from the problems of plasma antiprotons described above. But cold antihydrogen is much more difficult than the production of antiprotons, and so far have not been fishing atom of antihydrogen atoms in a magnetic field.
One of the researchers said in the CERN laboratories, which regularly produce antimatter:
If we could assemble all of the antimatter we've ever made at CERN and annihilate it with matter, we would have enough energy to light a single electric light bulb for a few minutes
